Sanatana Dharma in Simple Terms – 8

Vaisheshika and Nyaya Philosophy: The Six Vedic Philosophical Systems (Part 2)

In this series on Sanatana Dharma, we are exploring the six classical Vedic philosophical systems that form the intellectual foundation of Hindu philosophy and Indian Knowledge Systems. In this article we will continue with the Vedic schools of thought and look at the next two schools Vaisheshika and Nyaaya.

Vaisheshika Philosophy

Founder: Kanaada rishi, main text: Vaisheshika sutras by Kanaadar.

This system accepts Paramatma (Ishvara), jivatma and the physical world.

The most distinctive doctrine of the Vaisheshikas is this. The physical world is composed of eternal, indivisible, indestructible ‘atoms’ (paramaanus). We use the word ‘atom’ here but note that the meaning is different from its scientific use. Here ‘atom’ denotes the final indivisible part called paramaanu. By Ishvara’s will, atoms of earth (prithvi), water (jalam), fire (tejas), and air (vaayu) combine to form all composite material objects. This is one of the earliest atomic theories in human thought.

Another important distinction, say from Saankhya and Yoga, is their theory of causation. Vaisheshikas hold that the effect does not pre-exist in the cause – the effect is a genuinely new production which is not a modified state of any existing thing. This is called asatkaarya-vaada and it opposes the satkaaryavaada of Saankhya that the effect is latent in the cause.

Each individual (jiva) possesses an eternal self (atma). Consciousness (jnaana) is not the essence of the atma but a quality arising in connection with mind (manas) and body. Atma is all-pervading (vibhu). It is not self-luminous, i.e. it does not reveal itself to the jiva. Atmas survive bodily death and undergo rebirth.

Although the Vaisheshikas accept the authority of the Vedas, they do not accept that the Vedas are authorless (apaurusheya). The Vedas are paurusheya, authored by Ishvara (Paramatma) at the beginning of each cosmic cycle. Ishvara, being omniscient (sarvajnaa) and perfectly virtuous, is incapable of error and this is what guarantees the authority of the Vedas, not authorlessness. Further, the system is built almost entirely on rational and empirical foundations i.e. mainly on pratyaksha and anumaana. The Vedas are rarely invoked to establish metaphysical claims about ‘atoms’, categories, or substances, possibly because in their times the Vaisheshikas were in debate with theBouddhas (Buddhists) who do not accept the Vedas.

Ishvara and jiva are totally different. Ishvara is the ‘sentient’ (efficient) cause of the universe, meaning Ishvara wills creation. The ‘atoms’ (paramaanus) are the material cause.

The goal of life is release from suffering and rebirth. Liberation (moksha) is achieved through true knowledge of Reality, detachment from desires, exhaustion of karma.

In this system, Reality is described in the form of six (later seven) categories (padaarthaas): dravya, guna, karma, saamaanya, vishesha, samavaaya, and later the concept of abhaava. [Recall that Saankhya has two categories called tattvaas – purusha and prakriti, with the latter further categorised into 23 other entities; we will see later that Vedaantahas a different classification of categories, similar to Saankhya but including Ishvara.] Here are the meanings of the 7 categories in this system.

Dravya: Substance (the substratum of all qualities)

Guna: Quality (attributes like colour, taste, smell)

Karma: Action in the form of movement

Saamaanya: Common characteristics or properties of things that are similar and that belong to the same class of objects e.g. all cows form a class (jaati) of cows which have some common characteristics.

Vishesha: A special quality of eternal entities e.g. of the eternal ‘atoms’ or the eternal atmas, that distinguishes them from one another. The name ‘Vaisheshika’ comes from this concept.

Samavaaya: the quality of inherence denoting the inseparable relation between a substance and its qualities.

Abhaava: Non-existence/absence (added by later Vaisheshikas), as a concept separate from being the opposite of existence.

Nyaaya Philosophy

Founder: Gautama rishi, main texts: Nyaaya sutras by Ashtapaada as well as its commentary (bhashyam) by Vatsyaayana.

Its name means “rule” or “logical analysis”. It is primarily a school of logic, epistemology, and rational theology. Its central concern is the correct means of acquiring valid knowledge and using that knowledge to attain liberation (moksha).

Nyaaya developed one of the most sophisticated logical traditions in the ancient world. It analyses arguments, syllogisms, fallacies, debate methods, error in reasoning.

It accepts four valid means of knowledge (pramaanaas) – more than most other schools. They are:

• pratyaksha – perception
• anumaana – inference. This is the most elaborately developed pramaana in Nyaaya; Nyaaya developed the most sophisticated theory of inference in Indian philosophy.
• shabda – verbal testimony. Knowledge derived from the words of a reliable person (aapta) – one who is truthful, knowledgeable, and benevolent. This includes testimony of ordinary reliable persons as well as testimony of Vedic revelation which is valid because its author (Ishvara) is perfectly reliable (same as Vaisheshika theory).
• upamaana – comparison/analogy. Knowledge gained by recognising similarity between a known and an unknown thing. Example: being told a gavaya (wild cow) looks like a domestic cow, then recognizing it in the forest. This is a distinct separate pramaana unique to Nyaaya and Mimaamsa (the latter will be examined in a subsequent article).

According to Nyaaya’s conception, each individual has a distinct, eternal, all-pervading atman. Consciousness is not intrinsic to the atman — it arises only when atma is in contact with manas (mind), indriyas (sense organs) and objects. Atma is the real experiencer of pleasure and pain. It is inferred – not directly perceived – through the awareness of “I”. In liberation (moksha), the atma is completely free of all qualities including consciousness – a purely quiescent state.

Nyaaya is the school most famous for its rational proofs for the existence of Brahman. Nyaaya argues for a creator Brahman through rational inference. The main argument goes as follows. The world is an effect (it has parts, it is composite). Every effect requires an intelligent cause who has knowledge of the material. The atoms (from Vaisheshikatheory) cannot combine on their own – they need divine intelligence to direct them (like in the Vaisheshika system). Therefore, an omniscient, omnipotent, benevolent Ishvara must exist. Other arguments include the moral order of Karmaand the Vedic testimony. Nyaaya also accepts the Vedas as authored by Ishvara (like the Vaisheshikas).

Nyaaya teaches that the self (atma) is real and eternal, there are many individual atmas, atma is distinct from body and mind. Consciousness is considered a property of the atma, not its essence.

Nyaaya’s enduring contribution to world philosophy is its rigorous theory of reasoning and valid knowledge. Its analysis of inference, its catalogue of fallacies, its debate theory, and its rational theology make it uniquely systematic.

Nyaaya is mostly accepted as is by Vedaanta (except in rare occasions when it contradicts some Vedic passages).

Nyaaya and Vaisheshika systems are so closely allied that they are often combined and called Nyaaya-Vaisheshikaschool or Tarka Shastra.

A note on pramaanas:

We saw above that the Nyaaya system uses a fourth pramaana called upamaana. I would like to take a brief pause here to introduce a few more pramaanaas (valid sources of knowledge) that we come across in some of these systems.

Let us recall that we said in our article 1 that there are three pramanaas in our ancient knowledge system: pratyaksha,anumaana, shabda. You might hear of three more in certain contexts. They are:

Upamaana: Comparison. Knowing something by observing that it is similar to something that is already known. We saw an example above in the Nyaaya system.

Arthaapatti: Presumption. Knowing something through presumption, based on something that is known to be true. A is fat (true). But A doesn’t eat during the day. So, we presume that A eats at night.

Anupalabdhi: Non-apprehension. Knowing something by not perceiving it. If one has good eyesight, if there is sufficient light and one doesn’t see a jar on a table, one knows that there no jar on the table.

The above are also accepted in most systems including Vedaanta. They may not be explicitly cited as separate pramaanas but generally included in anumaana and/or pratyaksha.

Please feel free to leave comments/questions.

Note: Readers can use the following links to quickly find my earlier articles:

Article 1 :https://bhogya.online/sanatana-dharma-in-simple-terms-1/;

All other articles: https://bhogya.online/author/jayalakshmi/